The digital transformation of agriculture depends not only on the adoption of modern technologies, but also on the capacity of human resources in rural areas to use digital tools effectively in professional and entrepreneurial activities. This study aims to develop a conceptual model for using artificial intelligence to enhance the professional skills of farmers, farm managers, cooperative members, and rural entrepreneurs. The research is exploratory and applied in nature and is based on a documentary analysis of a digital vocational training platform that integrates adaptive artificial intelligence, behavioural assessment, personalized educational content, virtual simulations, and progress-monitoring tools. Based on the identified functionalities, the main training needs in agriculture were correlated with possible digital learning pathways focused on farm management, data use, negotiation, cooperation, communication, decision-making, and risk management. The analysis indicates that the platform contains functionalities that could support the personalization of the educational process, provide learner-adapted feedback, and document skill development. The proposed model may help reduce geographical barriers to training, increase the relevance of educational programs, and strengthen rural human capital. However, validating its effectiveness requires empirical research conducted in farms, cooperatives, and rural enterprises.

Flowers have long held economic, cultural, and ornamental importance, while several species are also valued as raw materials for the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. In Romania, tuberose is appreciated particularly for its decorative qualities and intensely fragrant flowers. This study aimed to evaluate the influence of supplemental light treatments applied to tuberose bulbs before planting on plant development and bulbil production. The experiment was conducted using the ‘Avatea’ cultivar in a vertical greenhouse at the Vegetable Research and Development Station Buzău, Romania. Before planting, the bulbs were exposed to supplemental lighting provided by high-power light-emitting diode panels emitting monochromatic blue, red, or white light. An untreated variant was included as the control. During the vegetation period, biometric measurements were performed to assess the plants' response to the different pre-planting light treatments. At the end of the experiment, bulbil production was determined separately for each experimental variant and compared with that of the control. The results indicated that pre-planting exposure to light-emitting diode treatments influenced the reproductive performance of tuberose plants. The red-light treatment, V2, produced the highest bulbil weight and total bulb-plus-bulbil biomass, whereas the white-light treatment, V4, produced the highest mean number of bulbils. Both treatments showed distinct advantages compared with the untreated control. These findings suggest that supplemental lighting of tuberose bulbs before planting may represent a useful technological approach for improving the production of propagation material under protected cultivation conditions.

This qualitative study explores the challenges and unmet needs of local farmers in Duhok Governorate, Iraqi Kurdistan. Most studies on agricultural development in the local area focus on the macro-economic status of farming. Whereas lived realities of agricultural practitioners and farmers on the other hand are often overlooked. That is why this study tries to focus on such realities and provide empirical evidence on the challenges faced by local farmers around Duhok. A qualitative exploratory design is employed, in which data were collected using semi-structured interviews conducted in Bahdini Kurdish dialect with 14 current and former farmers across five different villages around Duhok city. Then, data were coded and analysed using thematic analysis. The analysis revealed an intersecting crisis driven by water scarcity, climate unpredictability, economic non-viability, and institutional neglect. Such factors interact and combine to form the reality of local farmers, and are potentially driving a move towards de-agrarianization and accelerated urbanization. Finally, the paper concludes with some targeted policy interventions, which include seasonal market protections, water infrastructure, collective procurement of inputs, and revitalization of extension services, all to ensure the sustainability of local farming.

In the context of the development of the agricultural sector in the Republic of Moldova, access to financial resources represents a key factor in supporting and expanding farmers' activities. The need for financing products tailored to the specific characteristics of agriculture is becoming increasingly evident, given that this sector is highly influenced by seasonal risks, climatic conditions, and market fluctuations. The purpose of this chapter is to analyse farmers’ financial behaviour and to identify the main challenges they face when accessing agricultural loans. Through a survey conducted among farmers and potential farmers, the study investigates their actual financing needs, the purposes for which loans are used, and their perceptions regarding the effectiveness of available financing solutions.

Understanding the phenotypic diversity of chickens within a population is essential for designing improvement and conservation programs. This study compared the phenotypic characteristics of chickens in agroecological regions II and III of Zambia. A total of 794 mature indigenous chickens were evaluated for body weight, linear body measurements, and qualitative morphological traits. These chickens were also observed for plumage colour, skin colour, shank colour, comb type, earlobe colour, and eye colour. Results showed that males had significantly higher body weights and all linear body measurements (p < 0.001), and this sexual dimorphism was more pronounced in AER II than in AER III. Chickens in AER II had significantly higher body weights (1.78 kg) than those in AER III (1.55 kg) (p < 0.01). Principal component analysis revealed a clear difference between the two regions, despite considerable overlap, indicating that agroecological regions influenced the phenotypic characteristics of chickens. All linear body measurements were positively and significantly correlated with body weight in both regions (p < 0.01). Significant differences (p < 0.001) were observed in eye colour, comb type, skin colour, plumage colour, earlobe colour, and shank colour (p < 0.05) between AER II and AER III. However, eye colour showed the strongest association with agroecological region (Cramer's V = 0.421). The current study revealed notable phenotypic variation in qualitative and quantitative traits among Zambian indigenous chickens across regions. These findings provide baseline phenotypic information to support breeding, conservation, and genetic improvement of Zambian indigenous chickens.

This study assessed access to credit access among poultry farmers in Akinyele Local Government Area of Oyo State, Nigeria. Specifically, it examined the socioeconomic characteristics of farmers, sources and accessibility of agricultural credit, borrowing preferences and constraints, and factors influencing credit access. Data were collected from poultry farmers using a structured questionnaire and analysed using descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression. The findings showed that poultry farming was predominantly undertaken by males (79.8%), while 80.8% of respondents were aged 20–45 years and 89.9% had tertiary education. Credit access was high, with 99.0% of respondents having access to credit. Commercial banks were the major source of credit (59.6%), while flexible repayment terms (33.3%) and affordable interest rates (28.3%) were the major factors motivating credit acquisition. High interest rates, bureaucratic procedures, and collateral or guarantor requirements were major constraints. The logistic regression model was statistically significant at the 1% level, with gender, educational status, and business worth showing positive and significant relationships with credit access. The study concludes that farmers' socioeconomic characteristics and business strength are important to credit access. It recommends improved financial literacy, support for poultry business growth, inclusive credit policies, and stronger linkages between farmers and financial institutions to enhance access to agricultural finance.

Nigeria’s food security is increasingly threatened by climate change, yet women — who contribute an estimated 50 to 60 percent of the country’s agricultural labour — remain systematically excluded from the resources and institutions that govern agriculture. This paper examines the intersection of gender, climate resilience, and food security in Nigeria, asking how structural barriers constrain women’s adaptive capacity and limit the effectiveness of national responses to climate-induced food insecurity. Drawing on a qualitative systematic desktop review of Nigerian policy documents, multilateral reports, and peer-reviewed empirical studies, and employing a feminist political ecology (FPE) framework as the analytical lens, the study synthesises evidence across land tenure, agricultural finance, extension services, decision-making, and climate-smart agriculture (CSA) policy. The review finds that women plot managers in Nigeria produce approximately 30 percent less per hectare than men — a gap driven not by lower ability but by differential access to land, inputs, credit, and advisory services. It further identifies a persistent gap between Nigeria’s stated gender commitments in agricultural and climate policy and their operational implementation. Evidence-based pathways toward more resilient food systems — including women-led cooperatives, gender-responsive digital extension, and participatory use of local ecological knowledge — are identified. The paper argues that embedding gender equity at the core of CSA policy — supported by secure land rights, gender-responsive finance and extension, and measurable accountability — is both an equity imperative and a food-security necessity for Nigeria.

The agricultural sector has been criticized for low productivity ratios and high environmental impacts, while it tends to be considered left behind by high-tech innovations as it’s difficult to apply some of them due to social structure issues. Currently, the two main drivers for agricultural innovation are the bioeconomy and digital technologies, the former being widely explored, whereas the latter hasn't received as much attention, especially in developing economies. So, this paper aims to map the state of the digitalization of agriculture in Costa Rica and to establish its contribution to the sustainable and inclusive development of rural territories in Costa Rica. For this, a multiple-integrated case study design is followed, divided into three phases. First, a literature review. The second analyses the public policy space for the digitalization of agriculture from secondary data and interviews with policymakers and users. The third systematizes practical experiences; for this, in-depth interviews and field visits were carried out to cover the cases of the main five agricultural productions of the country, which represent more than 95% of its agricultural production. Finding that digital technologies can join economic and sustainability goals through an increase in the precision and information flow of the productive processes, promoting a better integration of the productive systems and ecosystems, bringing closer consumers and producers, etc. Yet, the country still lacks a public policy for the digitalization of agriculture, leading to a fragmented policy space that creates challenges in terms of inclusion.

Non-timber forest products (NTFP) are important for the livelihood and food and health security of forest-dependent households in Nigeria. Despite their importance, very little is known about the revenue generated from NTFP sales by different genders, especially in NTFP-rich regions. This study examined the socioeconomics of gender participation among NTFP collectors and the key constraints that impact the collection and commercialization of NTFP in the Akure Forest Reserve. Using purposive sampling, 98 participants were sampled. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and mean score ranking. Findings showed that NTFP collectors and traders were predominantly married, economically active, had low to moderate education, and had moderate household sizes. Gender differences were observed in complementary livelihoods. Men engaged in farming (the primary livelihood), while women were more engaged in trading. The majority of participants earned between ₦50,000 and ₦100,000 from NTFP sales, indicating the livelihood value of the sector. The poor quality of roads and lack of adequate storage facilities, coupled with forest guards, and impacts from climate change were noted as key constraints to NTFP commercialization. The findings indicate the potential value of NTFP to rural livelihoods, and gender and institutional constraints for the improvement of rural livelihoods, market infrastructure, and forest management. Socioeconomics of gender of NTFP collectors impacted income generation from NTFP sales and were linked to the attainment of SDG 2, 8, and 15.

Participation is a cornerstone of rural development theory and practice, yet a fundamental tension persists between its instrumental use as a project management tool and its transformative potential as a process of empowerment and social change. This article critically examines this tension through a comparative review of participatory rural development experiences in Latin America, Asia, and Africa, synthesizing classical theoretical foundations from Arnstein's ladder of participation to Chambers' call for reversing power relations with contemporary critiques and empirical evidence from the past two decades. The analysis makes five key contributions: (1) it systematically distinguishes participation as a means from participation as an end; (2) it traces the historical evolution from top-down planning to participatory approaches across three regions; (3) it critically assesses persistent challenges including elite capture, tokenism, institutional constraints, and the difficulty of scaling; (4) it comparatively analyzes regional trajectories, revealing how participation is shaped by distinct political, institutional, and socio-cultural contexts; and (5) it identifies the conditions under which participation can achieve genuinely transformative outcomes. The article argues that meaningful participation requires more than community involvement in predetermined project activities its transformative potential depends on shifts in power relations, inclusive institutional arrangements, and governance systems that enable genuine local agency. By taking seriously both the promise and the limitations of participatory approaches, the article concludes with implications for policy, practice, and future research, emphasizing that participation must be understood not as a technical fix but as an inherently political process embedded in broader struggles for justice and democratic accountability.

This study assessed how different groups working together help improve the safety and well-being of people living in rural Muhanga District, Rwanda. These groups included government agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), farmer cooperatives, and community-based organizations. The aim was to find out whether working together leads to better living conditions and greater human security for rural communities. It collected information from 414 people, and 381 complete questionnaires were suitable for analysis, giving a high response rate of 92%. The information was analyzed using both numbers and people's views to gain a clear understanding of the situation. The results showed that cooperation among dif-ferent stakeholders is generally strong in rural Muhanga District. However, the involvement of community members in planning and decision-making is only moderate, showing that there is still room for improvement. Human security condi-tions were found to be moderately high (M = 3.60, SD = 0.89), with stronger outcomes in community and health security compared to economic security. Regression results indicated a strong positive and statistically significant relationship be-tween stakeholder collaboration and human security (R = 0.742, R² = 0.551, β = 0.742, p < 0.05), implying that stakeholder collaboration explains 55.1% of the variation in human security among rural households. It concludes that effective stake-holder collaboration significantly enhances human security by improving access to agricultural services, strengthening social capital, and enhancing institutional coordination. The study recommends strengthening inclusive participation mechanisms, improving inter-institutional coordination, and enhancing the role of farmer cooperatives in rural development planning to further improve human security outcomes.

Declining soil fertility remains a major constraint to sustainable maize production among smallholder farmers in Zambia, highlighting the need for sustainable land management practices such as agroforestry. This study comparatively assessed soil fertility, maize grain yield and soil–yield relationships under farmer-managed Gliricidia sepium agroforestry and conventional farming systems in Katete District, Zambia. A comparative cross-sectional study was conducted on 20 purposively selected smallholder farms comprising 10 agroforestry and 10 conventional maize farms. Composite soil samples (0–30 cm) were analysed for soil pH, organic carbon, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, and exchangeable potassium, calcium, magnesium and sodium. Maize grain yield was determined using the crop-cut method. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, Welch's independent-samples t-test, Pearson's correlation and multiple linear regression. Agroforestry farms had significantly higher soil pH, organic carbon, total nitrogen, available phosphorus and exchangeable potassium than conventional farms (p < 0.05), while sodium, calcium and magnesium did not differ significantly (p > 0.05). Mean maize grain yield was significantly higher under agroforestry (3,750.00 ± 716.86 kg ha⁻¹) than conventional farming (1,980.00 ± 229.98 kg ha⁻¹), representing an 89.4% higher yield (p < 0.001). Maize grain yield was positively associated with several soil fertility parameters. Soil organic carbon and total nitrogen were independently associated with maize grain yield (R² = 0.811; adjusted R² = 0.789; p < 0.001). The findings indicate that farmer-managed Gliricidia sepium agroforestry is associated with improved soil fertility and higher maize grain yield.

This study estimated the technical, allocative, and economic efficiency of camel milk production among pastoral households in the Shebelle Zone of the Somali Regional State, Ethiopia. Data were collected from 385 randomly selected camel milk-producing households using a structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics and stochastic frontier analysis based on a Cobb-Douglas production function were used to estimate production efficiency and identify key determinants of camel milk yield per camel. The half-normal stochastic frontier model was statistically significant, and the likelihood-ratio test confirmed the presence of technical inefficiency. The results show high levels of efficiency among camel milk-producing households, with mean technical, economic, and allocative efficiency scores of 0.9679, 0.9677, and 0.9998, respectively. Milking frequency, health expenditure per camel, and supplementary feeding had positive and statistically significant effects on camel milk yield, whereas labor and pasture area had positive but not statistically significant effects. The findings show that modest gains in productivity and cost savings remain possible through improved milking management, animal health services, supplementary feeding, and pastoral extension support.

The purpose of this study was to establish influence of land consolidation on social justice in Gasabo district, Rwanda. Despite of efforts for land policy implementation in Gasabo District, land related challenges and social disputes persists related to unconsolidated land fragmentation due to unfair distribution of land, which required the conduct of a comprehensive research study in addressing the existing issue. The study adopted mixed methodology and concurrent triangulation design. The study population comprised 530,907 residents of Gasabo District and 31 land administration professionals. The planned sample included 384 residents and all 31 professionals, for a total of 415 participants. Of the responses collected, 382 were validated and included in the quantitative regression analysis. The Cronbach Alpha of 0.934 and higher as an ideal value was applied to test instruments’ reliability. The collected data was analysed using SPSS software version 25.0. Descriptive statistics analysed the quantitative data obtained, while qualitative data obtained was analysed and discussed thematically. The study findings concluded that land consolidation had a positive and significant influence on social justice in Gasabo District, Rwanda. The study recommended the need to strengthen land policy components, suggests further research studies on the influence of courts decisions towards land owners’ complaints using current land laws, effective use of Information and technology on land related service by local residents, as solutions to the existing land issues experienced by other districts other than Gasabo District, Rwanda.

Situated within the Community-Based Adaptation approach, this study examines the determinants of smallholder farmers' transition to climate adaptation in Insiza District, Zimbabwe. The research employed qualitative methods for data collection, gathering information through documentary analysis, fifteen key informant interviews, and three focus group discussions. The findings reveal that while farmers rely on indigenous knowledge and local initiatives, such as farmers’ associations and small livestock schemes, these efforts are constrained by systemic challenges. Significant barriers include the politicisation and inadequate targeting of government programs such as Intwasa, as well as unresolved agrarian issues that weaken institutional support. The study underscores a disconnect between top-down policies and local realities, where high labour costs and inflexible input systems impede the adoption of resilient practices. Ultimately, it canvases for the recognition of local institutions and the integration of traditional ecological knowledge with modern climate services to promote long-term, self-sustained adaptation in vulnerable rural communities.

Natural forests play a vital role in sustaining the livelihoods of rural households, yet increasing dependence on forest resources poses significant challenges for environmental sustainability. This study examined the socio-economic interactions between natural forests and agricultural livelihoods among rural households surrounding Gambari Forest Reserve, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. A descriptive survey research design was adopted, and data were collected from 129 household heads selected through a multistage sampling procedure involving purposive, simple random and systematic random sampling techniques. Primary data were obtained using a structured questionnaire and analysed using descriptive statistics and multiple linear regression. The findings revealed that 52.7% of respondents exhibited a high level of forest dependence (Forest Dependence Index = 3.71). Fuelwood (78.3%), medicinal plants (69.8%) and wild food products (63.6%) were the most utilised forest resources, while soil fertility improvement (72.1%) was the most valued ecosystem service. Income generation (mean = 4.28), food security (mean = 4.16) and livelihood diversification (mean = 4.04) were the major perceived benefits, whereas deforestation (76.7%) and declining forest resources (70.5%) were the principal challenges. Age, household size, farming experience, access to forest resources and institutional support significantly increased household forest dependence, while educational status reduced dependence. The study concludes that strengthening community-based forest management, promoting sustainable agricultural practices, expanding livelihood diversification opportunities, and improving extension and environmental education are essential for reducing unsustainable forest dependence while sustaining rural livelihoods.

The forest sector serves as a critical, yet frequently undervalued, pillar of East African economies, providing essential ecosystem services and supporting rural livelihoods. However, standard macroeconomic indicators operating under the traditional System of National Accounts (SNA) restrictively focus on formal market-traded timber extraction. This study aims to conduct a systematic review synthesizing existing empirical evidence on the economic valuation of forest resources in Ethiopia and Kenya. Adhering strictly to the PRISMA 2020 framework guidelines, a comprehensive search was executed across electronic databases (Scopus, Web of Science, EconLit, Google Scholar) and institutional grey literature repositories for literature tracking forestry GDP metrics. The synthesis demonstrates that conventional metrics fail to capture extensive informal markets—predominantly biomass energy networks (woodfuel and charcoal) and non-timber forest products like wild coffee, honey, and medicinal plants. Comparative data highlights that Ethiopia’s forest rent contribution to GDP (5.60% in 2021) is significantly higher than Kenya’s (1.22%), aligning with Ethiopia’s larger forest resource base, which maintained roughly 15% forest cover from 2021 to 2023 compared to Kenya’s stable 6.22%. Relying on narrow, site-specific market indicators reinforces a policy bias that prioritizes industrial extraction or land conversion over conservation, inadvertently undermining non-market ecosystem services. To establish resilient green economies, both nations must transition toward integrated SEEA frameworks. Standardizing tracking metrics for informal biomass and NTFP supply chains is an essential requirement to bridge data gaps, accurately reflect forestry's role in poverty alleviation, and align environmental governance with macroeconomic stability.

Climate-induced migration has emerged as a significant socioeconomic and environmental challenge, particularly in vulner-able agrarian regions. Kuttanad, known as the rice bowl of Kerala, India, is increasingly experiencing pressures from recur-ring floods, environmental degradation, inadequate infrastructure, and livelihood insecurity, compelling farming households to consider migration. This study examines the economic, social, and environmental push factors influencing farmer migra-tion from Kuttanad. A quantitative research design was employed, and structural equation modelling was used to assess the reliability and validity of the measurement model and to examine the influence of the identified push factors. The findings in-dicate that economic, social, and environmental factors significantly contribute to migration pressures among Kuttanad farmers. Among the economic factors, low income emerged as the most prominent push factor, contributing to indebted-ness and vulnerability in the absence of adequate institutional support. Lack of infrastructure was identified as the major so-cial push factor, while recurring floods, inadequate drainage systems, limited access to quality drinking water, and unsus-tainable tourism practices constituted important environmental pressures. The study concludes that farmer migration in Kuttanad is shaped by the interconnected effects of livelihood insecurity, infrastructural deficiencies, and environmental vul-nerability. Strengthening climate-resilient infrastructure, flood and water management, institutional and financial support, diversified livelihood opportunities, and sustainable agricultural practices is essential to enhance community resilience and sustain Kuttanad as a viable agricultural region.

Sand mining, locally termed sand winning, is an economically significant but environmentally destructive activity that has spread along major river systems in Ghana, including the White Volta in the Northern Region. Despite anecdotal evidence of its impacts on farming communities, econometric evidence on its effects on smallholder agricultural income and food security remains scarce. This study estimates the effects of sand mining exposure on seasonal agricultural income and selected livelihood outcomes using primary data from 66 smallholder farmers in three communities of the Kumbungu and Nanton Districts: Nawuni, which is directly affected by sand mining, and Saakuba and Zuo, which serve as comparators. A Tobit regression model is used to analyse the determinants of censored agricultural income per season, while binary logistic regression models estimate the probability of farm size reduction and food security deterioration. The Tobit results indicate a negative association between residence in the sand-mining-affected community and agricultural income category (β = −0.614, p < 0.01), after controlling for farm characteristics, socioeconomic variables, and institutional access. Sand mining exposure also significantly increases the odds of farm size reduction (odds ratio = 4.22, p < 0.01) and food insecurity (odds ratio = 3.68, p < 0.01). Key informants confirmed that no sand mining operator in the study area holds a regulatory licence, indicating a critical governance failure. Enforcement of existing regulations, reclamation of excavated farmland, and alternative livelihood provision are urgent policy priorities.

Bambara groundnut [Vigna subterranea (L). Verdc.] is an underutilized African legume with high nutritional value and resilience to marginal environments. However, poor soil fertility, particularly nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) deficiencies, constrains productivity in smallholder systems. This study comprised of two experiments which evaluated the effects of rhizobial inoculation and biological nitrogen fixation, and phosphate‑solubilizing bacteria (PSB) and phosphorus on nodulation, nutrient uptake, and yield of Bambara groundnut in Minjibir, Kano State. Field experiments were conducted using a randomized complete block design with four replications. In Experiment I, treatments included rhizobia inoculation with or without starter nitrogen (20 kg N/ha). Rhizobia significantly increased nodulation, %Ndfa, shoot N concentration, and grain yield. The combined rhizobial + starter N treatment produced the highest yield (1756 kg/ha), representing a 125% increase over the control (780 kg/ha). In Experiment II, PSB inoculation was combined with phosphorus rates of 0, 20, 40, and 60 kg P/ha. PSB enhanced phosphorus uptake, root colonization, and yield. The most favourable response was observed at 40 kg P/ha + PSB, which increased seed yield to 1750 kg/ha compared with 760 kg/ha in the control. These findings demonstrate that combining microbial inoculants with balanced nutrient management substantially improves Bambara groundnut productivity while reducing reliance on inorganic fertilizers. Adoption of locally adapted rhizobial and PSB inoculants offers a promising strategy for sustainable legume production and food security in low‑input farming systems across sub‑Saharan Africa.